Voyageur & Mountain Man
Terminology
Sorry about the missing 'accents' on some of the the French words.

A la façon du pays
French for "a marriage in the custom of the country" - a marriage arrangement in fur trade society that included both Aboriginal and European customs, but was not recognized by European society. These were common between NWC men and Aboriginal women.
Aboriginal
The original inhabitants of North America - including First Nations and Inuit.
Aft
The back end, or stern, of the canoe.
Agret
Collection of materials that voyageurs used to repair the canoe en route - including pego, wattape, bark and tools.
Airline
The shortest and straightest line between two points. This term was in use long before the invention of aircraft.
Algonkian
A major Aboriginal language family, including nations dispersed throughout eastern and central North America
Algonquin
Native people living along the upper reaches of the Ottawa River and belonging to the Algonkian language family.
Aparejo
A large, padded packsaddle designed to handle awkward, heavy loads. Very likely the first type of packsaddle, Unlike the sawbuck, panniers cannot be handled with this saddle.
Appalos
An early camp food made by skewering alternate pieces of lean meat and fat on a sharpened stick and roasting over a low fire. When it was possible to get them, pieces of potato or vegetable, were intermixed with the fat and the meat. This method of cooking was much used by many tribes as well as the Mountain Men.
Arkansas Toothpick
A large, pointed dagger used mostly by river men.
Assiniboine
Native people belonging to the Sioux family. At the time of the fur trade, they were dispersed across the prairies as far as the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . They are also known as Nakoda.
Athapaskan
A major Aboriginal language family stretching from Hudson Bay to the Pacific coast and spoken as far away as the American Southwest. The name is derived from the Cree word for Lake Athabasca.
Atoca
Iroquois term for the cranberry fruit.
Aux Aliments du Pays
French for "nourishment of the land". All the free trappers and many engages were required to live "aux aliments du pays", surviving by using the provisions of nature.
Avant or Devant or Ducent
Position at the front of the canoe, occupied by an experienced voyageur. This position was occupied by Guillaume on the DNO-05 expedition.
Avant Courier
A French word meaning "scout". This word was used by both voyageurs and mountain men.

Babiche
Strips of raw animal hide. We used this to make repairs to our equipment.
Babillement
Set of clothes which was sometimes given to the NWC's servants is a reward for special services
Bannock, Galette
A pan-fried bread made of flour, salt and water.
Bark on, he has the
Said of a courageous person.
Bark
To skin an animal. To scalp a man. a squirrel by shooting the tree bark from under him.
Bateaux
Wooden boats used on lakes.
Beam
The maximum width of the canoe.
Bear Pen
A type of trap in which the fall acts as a lid over a pen, thereby catching the animal alive.
Big Fifty
The .50 caliber Sharps rifle used by the buffalo hunter.
Bilge
The inside of the canoe hull where the bottom turns into the sides, often referred to as the 'turn of the bilge'.
Biscuit - Water Crackers - Hardtack
A thin, dry, crispy-textured cracker that is made with flour, water and little or no salt - noted for its bland flavor.
Bitch
A lamp made by filling a tin cup with animal fat, then inserting a twisted rag or piece of cotton rope to act as a wick.
Blackbird Storm
An unexpected cold storm in late spring. 
Blanc Bec
A term used by voyageurs and mountain men for a new man who had yet to travel the Missouri past the Platte River.
Bois de bache
Buffalo chips, fuel used for cooking and heating on the prairies where wood was not available. 
Bone Picker
A despised human scavenger who hunted for, and sold, the bones of dead animals, mostly buffalo.
Booshway
The leader of a party of mountain men. The word comes from the French "bourgeois", used by the voyageurs.
Botes Sauvages or Souliers de Boeuf
A French slang term for "moccasin" - footwear made from deerskin or other animal hide. Aboriginal in origin and adopted by fur traders, the moccasin is well adapted for canoe travel and walking over irregular terrain.
Boudins
Buffalo intestines, a treat for the Voyageur gourmet. Also a 'blood pudding' sausage packed in the intestines of the animal. The real treat of the mountain man. A buffalo gut containing thyme, which was cut into lengths about 24 inches long and roasted before a fire until crisp and sizzling.
Bourgeois
Voyageur term for persons occupying a high-ranking post in a fur trading company. In the NWC. Bourgeois were usually men of English or Scottish descent who worked as clerks or shareholders. Mr. George Hebert St. Germaine was our Bourgeois in 05.The word came from the French and described a "new middle class people" in Europe. 
Bout
French for 'end' - voyageur occupying one of the end positions in the canoe, serving as gouvernail or avant. (Renaud and Guillaume for DNO)
Bowline
The curve of the bow of the canoe.
Braillet
The French term for a breechcloth worn by Aboriginals and some voyageurs. This was a strip of cloth that passed between the legs and was held in place by a string or belt around the waist. Often worn with mitasses (leggings).
Brigade
Unit made up of several canoes from the same company paddled by teams of voyageurs.
Buckskin
Tanned deerskin from which clothing was made. If Indian tanned, buckskin was a very light color, often almost white. Darker color was usually obtained by smoking the skin over an open fire.
Buffalo Boat
A boat made of raw buffalo skins, much used by traders. This boat differed from the Bull Boat in that it was larger and had a normal boat shape.
Buffalo Chip
Buffalo manure, dried and used as fuel.
Buffalo Cider
The fluid found in the stomach of the buffalo. Used by both mountain men and Indians to quench thirst.
Buffalo Dance
An Indian dance used to insure success on a buffalo hunt.
Buffaloed
Confused.
Buffalo Gun
See "Big Fifty".
Buffalo Lick
A natural saltlick used by buffalo and other game animals. Usually a very good place to find game.
Buffalo Range
Any wide-open feeding area used by buffalo.
Buffalo Robe
The skin of the buffalo, tanned with the hair on. Used as ground covers, robes and blankets,
Buffalo Wallow
The depression made by buffalo rolling and dusting themselves. The same wallows were used year after year often becoming quite deep.
Buffalo Wolf
A large, gray wolf found around buffalo herds. Young buffalo calves were the natural food of this animal.
Bug-tit
A derisive term used to mean any official who tended to think that he was more important than he actually was.
Bull Boat
A bowl-shaped boat with a willow frame, covered with green hide. Easy and quick to make; but very difficult to handle.
Bull Cheese
Buffalo jerky.
Building Bed
A bed of earth, or a table, where bark is laid out to be shaped, sewn and lashed to a frame. Used to build a canoe.

Cache
To hide or conceal; applicable either to one's self or one's goods.
Also used as a noun: the hidden goods; from the French.
A safe place, often hidden, for storage of food and other supplies.
Cahoots
To be in partnership.
Canadien
At the time of the NWC and before, this was a term meaning "French-Canadian" or Canadian of French ancestry. In the 1930s, it was replaced with Canadien-Français, and in the 1970s, with "Québécois".
Canoe Awl
An awl made from bone, antler or forged steel. Used to make and repair birch bark canoes. Usually has 3 or 4 corners.
Canot du nord
French for "north canoe" - birch bark canoe used in the pays d'en haut between Lake Superior and the Pacific. Smaller than the Montreal canoe, (about 26') manned by four to six voyageurs, carrying 1.5 tons of cargo. It weighed about 300 pounds. This canoe was portaged 'upright'.

Canot batard
A hybrid of the canot du nord and the canot de maitre - 30-32 feet in length.
Canot de maitre
French for "master canoe" [ambiguous translation] - also known as the 'Montreal canoe' or a 'freight canoe'. Made of birch bark, 36 feet long, weighed some 600 pounds, carried about 3 tons, and was paddled by 8-10 men. Incredibly - portaged 'inverted' by only 4 voyageurs! Name actually comes from a very famous builder from Trois Rivierse, Quebec.
Canot express
Called a 'canot léger' or 'light canoe' - used by the NWC for fast travel. Express canoes were not a specific type. Regardless of size they carried minimum loads and maximum paddlers, hence could travel faster than loaded canoes.
Cap Strip
The thin strip of wood fitted over the gunwales of the canoe, also known as a gunwale cap. Usually held in place with wooden pegs.
Capote
A long coat of simple design with a hood.  It was made from wool blankets.  
Carcajou
Wolverine - mammal known for its habit of stealing dead animals from traps. Sometimes called "glutton."
Carot or Carrotte
A bundle of tobacco.
Carryboard
A board attached to the middle crossbar of a canoe, used to help carry the canoe.
Cartouche knives
A type of table knife - equivalent to today's steak knives.
Cassette
Wooden boxes used by the bourgeois to carry personal effects or by the Voyageurs to carry fragile items.
Castor
French for 'beaver'.
Castor gras
The French term for beaver pelts that had been worn as clothing by the aboriginal people. Highly prized by hatters!
Castor sec
Dried beaver skin immediately traded by an Indian without wearing it (also known as "parchment beaver").
Castoreum
Substance obtained from gland sacs of the beaver, used in medical treatments and making lures for trapping.
Cavendish tobacco
Originated in England in the late 16th century, when Sir Thomas Cavendish discovered that dipping tobacco leaves in sugar produced a milder, more mellow smoke.  Subsequently the name Cavendish has been used to identify any tobacco treated with sweeteners such as maple syrup, figs, rum, molasses and honey.
Cedar Tea
Delicious tea made by boiling the green tips of the cedar tree.
Ceinture fléchée
French for "arrowhead sash" - a woven sash often decorated with patterns, initially worn by voyageurs for practical reasons and later as a symbol of their identity.
Chaga
Also known as 'tinder fungus' - this is a very special fungus that grows on birch trees mostly. Used to catch the sparks from steel hitting flint, and then in turn used to light ones fire.
Chanteur
Singer who leads songs.
Chasse-galerie
French Canadian legend about a canoe capable of flying and transporting its passengers back to their homeland.
Chaudiere
Large kettle used to make pea soup.
Chinook
A warm wind, usually in the spring. This is a common term in the Northwest.
Chipewyan
Aboriginal people belonging to the Athapascan language family and living in the Athabasca region at the time of the fur trade - today are part of the Dene nation.
Commis
French for “clerk” – the assistant to the proprietor or wintering partner. They are responsible for keeping track of the goods and managing the men. Junior agent in a fur trading company, sometimes in charge of a trading post.
Commission merchant (London firms)
Located in London, he provided the capital that allowed the export trade goods to North America. These men were major suppliers of the NWC and other partnerships.
Company Men
The employees of the company fell into five major categories. From highest to lowest paid, these were: proprietors, clerks, guides, overseers, and voyageurs.
Congé
Actual term for a licence allowing a voyageur to enter Indian country for the purpose of conducting trade. This term was used more frequently during the French regime than it was in the NWC era.
Contre-maîtres
French for "overseer" - senior voyageurs who acted as foremen.
Cordelle
A braided rope for towing a canoe (noun).
Towing the canoe in the water - in English called 'lineing' or 'tracking' (adjective).
Corps mort
Trees that have fallen into a swiftly-moving river and become jammed.
Corvée
Labour provided by Montreal voyageurs as stipulated in their contract.
Count coup
To do a brave deed such as killing someone, scalping him, or striking him with a coup-stick - or to relate one's brave deeds in a formal manner. To show bravery and receive honor by touching an enemy, usually with a special stick used for that purpose only. In some tribes, touching a living enemy had more honor than touching a dead enemy. Touching a man had more honor than touching a woman. The first to touch received more honor than the second or third. Credit was seldom if ever, given after the third. When feathers were awarded for coup, they were sometimes depending on the tribe, cut or painted to indicate the type and amount of honor they represented. Oddly enough, killing the enemy did not count for coup the first to touch took the honor, be he the killer or not. When used by the mountain man, the expression "I'll count coup on him" usually meant "I'll kill him", after which, the taking of the dead man's scalp was normal.
Country-born
People of mixed English-Scottish and Native ancestry. The term Métis eventually came to identify them as well as those from a mixed Native and French ancestry.
Coureur des bois
French for "runner of the woods" - ancestor of the voyageur who traded with Natives without official permission during the period of New France. Generally operating without a license or official sanction, these men lived and traded out among the Indians, often for years at a time.  They would sell their furs to whoever offered the best prices, whether they be French or English.  
Courier
A messenger, A term used mostly by traders.
Cow parsnip
Also called hogweed - large perennial thick-stemmed plant of the parsley family, often measuring 2m tall - has therapeutic properties, leaves are edible, stem can be used as a drinking straw, roots can be used as an insect repellent.
Cree
Aboriginal people belonging to the Algonkian language family and dispersed over a vast territory stretching from northern Quebec to Alberta.
Crimpy Day
A very cold day.
Crossbar
Also known as a 'thwart' - horizontal crossbars between gunwales on a canoe.
Crooked River
Any river which is filled with sand bars reefs, or actual bends.
Curly Wolf
A man who can brag and is willing to back his talk with his fists or other means.
Cut For Sign
To walk or ride back and forth across an area looking for evidence of a man or animal passing.
Cutwater
The forward edge of the canoe's bow that divides the water.

Décharge
French for "unloading" - removal of cargo from the canoe in order to manoeuvre it more easily around obstructions or through rapids.
Dégradé
French for "deteriorated weather conditions" - situation where voyageurs are forced to go ashore because of poor weather.
Demi-décharge
Act of removing from the canoe enough weight (including the crew) so that it can pass through rapids. Since the canoe no longer has to be carried, this made portaging easier for the voyageurs.
Dig up the Tomahawk
Start a war. Often the word "hatchet" was substituted for "tomahawk".
DNO
The incredible adventure I participated in during the summer of 2005. This was a re-enactment of a voyageur expedition from Lachine to Winnipeg, Manitoba. Changed my life!
Double équipement
The double of a defined quantity of clothing and other supplies stipulated in a wintering voyageur's contract as part of his pay.
Dumpling Dust
Flour. This term originated from the early practice of mixing dough by pouring water in a depression made in the flour while it was still in the sack, causing small puffs of dust. Both the term and practice are still used by north woodsmen.
Dupskodegun
The private mark or symbol of a canoe maker.
Dutch Oven
A large kettle with three feet and a dished lid. It can be used for both cooking and baking.
Duvet de castor
Under fur - fine hairs found near the skin of the beaver and other animals. The under fur was in great demand for manufacturing beaver felt.

Easy Water
Calm, smooth water on a river or lake.
écorce
Spare piece of birch bark placed in each canoe for the purpose of repairs.
Ecuelle
A wooden bowl that the voyageurs used for eating and bailing out the canoe.
Embarras
The voyageur term for debris in the water.
En derouine
Method of trade practised by wintering voyageurs, who travelled to Aboriginal communities and hunting grounds to trade for furs or other goods, as opposed to waiting for the Aboriginals to come to them.
Engagé
French for "hired man" - labourer hired on contract by a fur trading company. An engagé could be a voyageur, tradesman or farmer. Of lower social status than a free trapper or a trapper contracted for part of his take. My great-great-great-great great-great grandfather (Jean-Baptiste Lalonde) is listed in the census of 1669 as a 'voyageur' or an 'Engagé Ouest'.
Engagement
Contract signed before a notary public by a voyageur.
Entrepot
The term given to Grand Portage, and then in 1803 to Fort William. These were the two rendez-vous points of the fur trade, joining the extreme entities of Fort Chip and Lachine. These were the 'turn around' points where goods and furs came together and were traded.
équipement
Quantity of clothing, tobacco, and other articles stipulated in a voyageur's contract as part of his pay. The basic equipment included 1 blanket, 1 shirt, and 1 pair of trousers.

Factor
Chief of a trading post or trading party, authorized by the company to sell or trade company merchandise.
Father of all Waters
Mississippi River. An Indian term.
Fat Pine
Pitch pine, very good for starting fires.
Feast Cakes
Pancakes.
Fire Water
Whiskey or Rum with such a high alcohol content that it would cause a fire to leap up when thrown on.  Whiskey or Rum which had been substantially diluted with water would douse the fire when thrown on.
First Nations
The first people to inhabit North America , excluding the Inuit.
Fizz-Pop
A very early soda pop made by mixing a little vinegar and a spoon of sugar in a glass of fresh water. Just before drinking mix in about a quarter of a spoon of soda.
Flare
The upward outside curve of the sides of the canoe.
Flash in the pan
A misfire. Also a man who spends a great deal of time bragging, but never seems to be around when it comes to proving himself.
Flat Boat
A large scow used to float up to three tons of fur and skins to St. Louis.
Fleshed
Any skin or hide which had the flesh and fat scraped off before it was dried.
Fleshing
The process of removing the excess flesh and fat from a skin or hide.
Float Stick
A stick attached to a steel trap used to show the location of the trap and the trapped animal. From this comes the expression, "That's the way my stick floats" , meaning , " That's the way I feel about it."
Foofooraw
Trinkets, doodads, decorative trivia fancied by women, especially Indian women. Any fancy clothing or anything fancy on clothing. Just about anything used for decoration
Fore
The front or bow area of the canoe.
Fork A Horse (Or Mule)
Mount the animal.
Fort Chippewyan
Major trading post of the NWC, located in the Athabasca district. This was Mackenzie's starting point in 1789.
Fort Up
Get ready to fight a defensive battle.
Fort William
Major fur warehouse and rendezvous point after 1803 for the NWC. Located on the north shore of Lake Superior near present-day Thunder Bay. Spent an absolutely incredible week at the fort during DNO - our rendez-vous if you will.
Free Trapper
A trapper who worked for himself, trapping and selling where he wanted and to whom he wanted.
Freeboard
The distance between the gunwales of the canoe and the water - as little as 6 inches in a fully loaded canoe.
French Canadian
Canadians whose origin is partially or entirely French.
French River
River in Ontario located on the fur-trading route. A beautiful part of Ontario.
Fur Country
As the mountain men used the expression, The Rocky Mountains.
Fur merchants
People who acquired furs through trade with Natives, then sold them to crafts people who made fur products.
Fur-wool
The under layer of barbed hairs found on most animal skins. The beaver's fur-wool is best used to make felt hats.

Gant Up
Tighten up on a rope or belt.
Gens de la Baie d'Urson
Expression used by NWC voyageurs to designate the employees and people of the HBC.
Gens du Petit Nord
Expression used by NWC voyageurs to designate the employees and people of the HBC.
Gens du Nord-Ouest
Expression used by NWC voyageurs to designate the partners and employees of the NWC.
Get Yer Bristles Up
To get angry.
Gewgaws
See foofooraw.
Gill
Approximately one-quarter pint or 4 ounces.  Typically voyageurs were allotted one gill of whiskey or rum at the end of a days work.
Gimlet
An inexpensive hand drill used as a trade item.
Gone Beaver
Said of someone who has been dead some time. He's about to go under; but once dead, he's a gone beaver.
Gores
The the slits cut into the bark of the canoe so it can be shaped and then sewn.
Gouvernail
French for "helmsman" - position at the rear of the canoe where a voyageur steered the craft. This was Renaud for DNO.
Grand Nord
Vast area west and north of lake Winnipeg.
Grand Portage
Trading post on the western extremity of Lake Superior in present-day Minnesota, served as headquarters of the NWC before the establishment of Fort William.
Green River Knife
The name of a manufacturer, not the name of the river. To shove it in to the 'green river' meant to shove the knife in to the hilt, where the trademark of the manufacturer was stamped. By extension, to do anything up to the 'green river' meant to do it to the fullest extent.
Gras
Animal fat.
Gras Lamp
See "Bitch".
Grease Hunger
An expression meaning "I am hungry for meat."
Grease and Beans
An expression meaning "Food".
Green Hand
A term used by early traders meaning an inexperienced man.
Green Meat
Meat which still had the animal heat in it.
Guide
In a brigade, the guide was the voyageur in charge of the safe passage of the canoes - the voyageur equivalent of a ship's captain. They were experienced voyageurs who knew how to judge the water and direct the canoes along the voyage. They had the power to dock the men's wages.
Gunwales
The wooden rails running along the sheer line of the canoe - used to strengthen and protect the edges of the canoe.

Hair of the bear he was
The greatest praise a mountain man can say of another.
Half Breed
A person of mixed blood, Indian and White. Some times referred to as 'breed'.
Half-Faced Camp
A floor less shed, closed with poles on the back and sides, closed with skins and blankets on the front. The roof sloped from the rear of the shed to the front. This form of house or shed was greatly used by settlers until they had time to construct a log structure.
Halyard
The rope used to raise or lower the sail.
Hawk
Short for "Tomahawk".
Hatters
Artisans who fashioned hats of various styles from beaver fur.
HBC
Hudson Bay Company - fur-trading company founded in 1670, directed from London, England. HBC once administered and exploited the vast territory formerly called Rupert's Land.
Headboard
The piece of wood inserted in the bow and stern of the canoe in the shape of the cross-section of the canoe. Used to strengthen the stem pieces and helps the ends maintain their shape.
Heft, to
A very old term meaning "to lift and feel the weight of".
Hello the camp
A traditional greeting given before entering any strange camp. Better given at a slight distance or the visitor may not leave in the same manner that he entered,
Hide Hunter
A rather low breed of man who killed buffalo for the hides only. Usually despised by all who came into contact with him. "Buffalo skins for the belts of industry."
Hemlock
Also known as poison hemlock - a tall perennial plant with a long stem and small white flowers, usually toxic but used as a sedative, pain reliever, antispasmodic.
Hivernants
French for "wintering ones" - voyageurs and bourgeois who spent the winter at trading posts in the North West. An Experienced Voyageur. Older men with more experience than the "Summer Men".
Hogshead
A large wooden barrel or cask capable of holding from 100 gallons up.
Hommes du nord
French for "North Men" - the more experienced voyageurs who spent winter at trading posts in the North West.
Homme libre
A 'freeman' - a voyageur who stayed in the interior after his contract had ended and continued to do business with his former employer as a supplier of provisions and labour.
Hull
The bark covering of the canoe.
Hump Ribs
The small ribs which support the buffalo's hump. Roasted they were another favorite of the mountain men.
Huron
Aboriginals, belonging to the Iroquoian language family, inhabiting southern Ontario in the fur-trade era, today live mostly in Quebec.

Indians
Name applied collectively to the Native peoples of the Americas by early Europeans who believed they were in India.
Indian Bread
Corn meal bread.
Indian Doctor
Medicine man. Also, a White man well versed in natural medicine.
Indian File
Single file.
Inuit
Aboriginal peoples inhabiting Canada 's northern and polar regions.
Iroquois
Grouping of Aboriginal peoples belonging to the Iroquoian language family, including the Seneca, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga and Mohawk nations. Today they inhabit the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and the state of New York.
Interpreter
One special skill/position which was especially recognized was that of interpreter, and as such interpreters were paid more than guides.

Jarretierrs
French term for "garters" -  cotton or wool straps about 2" wide and 2.5' long - used to shorten or seal off pant-legs and shirt-sleeves.
Jerky
Dried meat made by cutting meat into strips about one inch wide, 1/4 inch thick, and as long as possible. This was then sun-dried on racks often with a small hardwood fire under the meat to smoke it and to keep insects off it. In good, hot weather the meat would be dry and ready to use in 3 to 4 days.
Joie de vivre
French for "joy of living" - term sometimes used to describe the fun-loving and exuberant nature of the voyageurs.

Keel Boat
A 60- to 80-foot long flat-bottomed boat about 16 feet wide. In wide use before steamboats.
Keener
A man who is an exceptional shot.
Kinnikinnick
A firm of smoking tobbaco made from the leaves of the tobacco plant plus the leaves and bark of other plants, the actual formula depending on the tribe making it.

L'Assomption
Village in Quebec located NE of Montreal, famous uring the fur trade for supplying woven voyageur sashes.
La Vieille
French for "the old woman" - was a term used for favorable winds that enabled voyageurs to raise a sail and cross bodies of water faster. The French expression "la vieille souffle", means the old woman blows  Term for a good wind.
Lachine
Community located on the island of Montreal upstream from the Lachine rapids, departure point for North West Company canoe brigades. This was our point of departure for DNO.
Les Anglois
Expression used by NWC voyageurs to designate the employees and people of the HBC.
Lining
Navigation technique used when the current is too fast to paddle against and when the shoreline is free of snags. A line of 60 to 100 feet long is attached to the full canoe and pulled from shore while the steersman and gear remain in the canoe.
Little Potties
A corruption of "les petits"; a term used by the NWC to label their rivals from the XY Company.
Lock, Stock and Barrel
In total; the whole thing. For examples "He sold his shop, lock, stock, and barrel". This expression comes from the 3 major parts needed to construct a muzzle loading rifle or pistol.
Loco
Crazy.
Lodge
Beaver house, built mainly from mud, logs and tree branches. A dam protects the lodge's entrance by raising the water level and keeping the opening submerged. ALSO the living quarters be it house, cabin, tipi, hogan, tent, or lean-to, of the Indian or mountain man.
Lower Canada
Historic name for the province of Quebec.
Lumpy Dick
A pudding made by stirring dry flour into boiling milk until thick, then serving with sweet milk and molasses or sugar.

Mackenzie River
Canada 's longest river located entirely in the Northwest Territories - flows into the Arctic Ocean, and its drainage basin includes Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake and Great Bear Lake. The river was named for Alexander Mackenzie, the first European explorer (1789) to descend it.
Mackinaw
A boat approximately 40 feet long, 10 feet across the beam, and 4 feet deep, pointed at both ends. This boat, widely used on the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio River systems, was capable of holding a cargo of approximately 10 tons. Often these were used for downstream travel.
Made beaver
Monetary unit used by the Hudson 's Bay Company to set the value of goods traded. Examples of what a made beaver (MB) could buy – large kettles at 16-18 MB, small kettles at 9 MB, guns of all lengths were 14 MB, gunpowder at 1 MB per pound, shot of all types at four pounds for 1 MB, tobacco averaged 1 MB per pound, beads at 4 MB per pound, hatchets-ice chisels-files all at 1 MB, fire steels at 4 per MB, blankets at 7 MB each, cloth varied between 2 and 5 MB per yard, liquor at 4 MB per gallon, and knives were 4 per MB.
Made Wolf Meat
A dead man left where he fell, for the wolves to dine on. An act of contempt.
Make Beaver
To get a move on, to travel in a hurry.
Mal De Vanche
An illness common to the mountain man and voyageur, It was caused by eating too much fat or fatty meat and not enough vegetable matter.
Mangeurs de lard
French for "pork eaters" or "fat eaters" - nickname for NWC voyageurs who travelled the route between Lachine and Fort William . Figuratively - an inexperienced man - a man who used to the diet of the settlements (which would include pork) and not of the bush (wild game). Always a term of denigration. Unlike les Hommes du Nord, they spent the winter in Lower Canada.
Maple Sugar
Made by boiling the sap of the sugar maple until a cake of sugar remained - introduced by Natives to early explorers.
Meat Bag
The human stomach.
Medicine
The magic, secret charms of the Indian. Also the bait used in trapping.
Medicine Bag
The small bag, used to carry the medicine of the Indian. Adopted by the mountain man and used to carry anything small, especially the "secret" bait he used near his traps.
Medicine Pipe
The sacred pipe of the Indian. This pipe was used only during special ceremonies, was kept in a special, sacred bundle, and was NEVER allowed to touch the ground.
Medicine Lodge
A sacred lodge used only for religious ceremonies. In some tribes it could also be used as a meeting place for the secret societies of braves. The sweat lodge (an early pioneer form of sauna bath) used by many tribes was also considered a "medicine lodge".
Melton (molton)
A heavy wool cloth used chiefly for making capotes and hunting jackets.
Men, The
All the men in a brigade are referred to as 'the men'. There would be one clerk for every eight men, about one overseer for every nine men. Of the total number of clerks, guides, overseers and voyageurs, clerks make up 11% of the total, guides 2%, overseers 10%, and voyageurs the remaining 77%. Every one except the proprietor and clerks were expected to paddle.
Methye Portage
Also known as Portage la Loche - in northern Saskatchewan, gateway to the Athabasca region, it was at 20km the longest portage on the trade route, straddling the watersheds of Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean.
Métis
A nation of people of Aboriginal and European descent - largely descended from the unions of hommes engage and Aboriginal women. Christian, one of the Voyageurs in DNO is a Métis.
Michif
A language containing elements of French and Aboriginal languages - spoken by a large number of the offspring of marriages à la façon du pays.
Milieu
French for "middle" - a voyageur who occupies a middle position in the canoe, the lowest of the voyageur hierarchy.
Mitasses
French for "leggings" - Aboriginal gaiters made from leather or cloth and worn on the lower leg.
Moccasin
The buckskin or moose hide shoe of the Indian, voyageur and mountain man. Light, quiet, and comfortable.
Moccasin Mail
A postal system devised by the mountain man. It consisted of leaving messages concerning the condition of the trail ahead, time and place of a rendezvous, etc, in trees, hollow logs, etc. Such messages were quite often put in an old moccasin so they would be easy to see.
Montreal
City at the the confluence of the Ottawa and Saint Lawrence Rivers - played a key role in the the fur trade.
Montreal Agent
Montreal-based shareholder of the NWC - responsible for importing trade goods for shipment to the North West and for exporting furs to Europe.
Montreal Peddlers
Term used by the HBC to label their rivals in Montreal.
Mud Hooks
Human feet. This expression is still often heard among country people.
Mukluk
High-top moccasins, made from leather and worn during the winter. Also known as Indian boots or winter moccasins.

Native
Synonym for Aboriginal - original inhabitant of a territory; or relating to a territory's original inhabitants. In North America, Natives include First Nations and Inuit.
Near Side
Left side  
New France
Group of former French colonies in North America.
Nootka
Aboriginal people inhabiting the west coast of Vancouver Island.
North West
Region of North America lying to the north and west of the Great Lakes.
North West Company (NWC)
Fur-trading company founded in Montreal in 1779. After contributing greatly to the opening of the North West to European commercial interests, it was merged with the Hudson Bay Company in 1821.
Notary
Lawyer responsible for writing up official documents, such as voyageur contracts.
NW Twist
The tobacco brand of the NWC, made in Albany.

Off Side
Right side.
Ojibwa
Aboriginals belonging to the Algonkian language group living to the north and west of Lake Superior during the fur trade - also known as Chippewa and Saulteaux.
Ol' Coon
A friendly nickname used between mountain men.
Orkney Islands
Group of islands off the northern coast of Scotland - place of origin for many of the labourers of the HBC.

Paddles
Paddles used by 'les bouts' could be as long as 7-9 feet - paddle of 'le milieu' could be as short as 4 feet. These were made of spruce, pine, birch or maple but the favorite was basswood (bois blanc) because of its weight, straight grain, strength, and ease of carving. Paddles were supplied by the voyageurs - often brightly painted and always very personal and highly prized.
Pagamoggon
A very effective Indian weapon - a 24" leather-covered handle tied to to a 3-pound stone. Used as a club.
Papoose
An Indian word used by many frontiersmen and mountain men to mean any Indian child.
Pays d'en Haut
French for " upper country" - historic name for the little known or unexplored regions to the north and west of the colony of New France . Later, the term applied to regions beyond the western limit of Upper Canada.
Parfleche
Rawhide made from buffalo hide. It is exceedingly tough. In fact, its name (French) comes from the fact that it could not be pierced by arrows or spears. The word also refers to a carrying case or envelope made of dried buffalo hide and widely used by both Indians and mountain men in place of a trunk.
Peace pipe
Pipe smoked by certain Aboriginal peoples for ceremonial occasions.
Pego
A mixture of spruce gum, bear fat and wood ash - used to seal seams on the birch bark canoe. Also known as 'pitch'.
Pemmican
Aboriginal foodstuff made from dried and pulverised meat, traditionally bison, blended with fat and sometimes wild berries. Pemmican was a staple food for the voyageurs to the west of the Great Lakes.
Penole
Flour made from parched corn.
Perche, Pique du Fond, Poling
French for 'push-pole' - an  8 to 12' length of wood, shod with metal ferrules, used to maneuver the canoe through shallow waters.
Petit Nord
Area which borders on the south of lake Superior and on the west by lake Winnipeg, extending north to Hudson bay.
Pièce
French for "piece" - pack or container prepared for transport by canoe, containing either furs or trade goods, weighing about 40kg (90lbs).
Pince
The pointed bow and stern of a canoe.
Pipée
French for "pipe break" - during canoe trips, stops at regular intervals (generally every hour) to allow the voyageurs to rest and smoke their pipes. By extension, the term came to mean a unit of distance between two stops.
Plus
Monetary unit used by the North West Company, equivalent to one good-quality beaver pelt - also spelled "plue/plew".
Plew
Beaver pelt (skin).
Ponche
Trade tobacco.
Pongie
A soft thin cloth woven from Chinese or Indian raw silk or an imitation thereof. Used as a Trade Item.
Portage
Portion of a trip where the canoe and cargo must be carried overland from one navigable spot to another. A trip between waterways or around a waterway obstruction, carrying everything along with you.
Portage Trail
The trail used to carry a canoe and supplies between waterways or around a waterway obstruction.
Pose
The 'break' during either paddling or portaging - would happen about every 1/2 mile on the portage and whenever declared by the Gouvernail when paddling.
Possibles
The personal property of the mountain man or voyageur - an awl, knives, tin cup, pipe, tobacco, flint, steel, sometimes a small sheet-metal fry-pan, and other accouterments he considered necessary. Firearms were considered "pieces" or guns" and not possibles.
Possibles Bag
The leather bag in which the mountain man carried his possibles. everything from his pipe and tobacco to his patches and balls. What could not be carried in the bag were hung on the bags shoulder strap. Shooting needs were given first priority, kept where they could be found with ease and speed.
Pot au Beurre
Name given to the prison for voyageurs at Fort William.
POW-WOW
An Indian word meaning a meeting followed by dancing and feasting. The mountain man's term for any discussion between two men, or for a planned meeting.
Proprietor
Most often the wintering partner - the boss - and as such holds almost absolute power over the men in his charge, rather like the captain of a ship.

Quebec
The largest province in Canada - lying in the eastern part of the country and the place of origin for most of the voyageurs. Before Confederation, Quebec was known as "Lower Canada".
Quires
A set of 24 or sometimes 25 sheets of paper of the same size and stock; one twentieth of a ream.

Raquettes
Known as 'snowshoes' in English - oblong or round webbed instruments attached to the feet, enabling the wearer to walk in deep snow without sinking. An Aboriginal technology that voyageurs adopted for winter travel.
Rawhide
The dried, dehaired but untanned hide of any animal, usually cattle or buffalo. Very trong and useful.
Rendezvous
The gathering of voyageurs and bourgeois of the NWC - the largest ones took place at Grand Portage and Fort William where brigades from west and east came together for about 2 weeks at the height of the summer.
Riband
A brightly colored ribbon used for decoration. Used as a trade item.
Rubbaboo
A boiled mixture of flour, pemmican, and water - sometimes referred to as 'potage'.
Rupert's Land
Historic term for the lands that the English King gave the HBC for their exclusive commercial use.
Russian Sheeting
A light, but very strong linen fabric, often used similarly to canvas.

Satinet
A cheap trouser fabric with a cotton warp and a wool weft or filling. It was woven so that it had a close, smooth wool surface, with none of the the cotton warp exposed.
Sault
French name for 'rapids'. The word is often associated with the names of specific towns and locations.
Saw Buck
A cross-frame used for cutting wood. Also a pack saddle.
Scurvy
Disease caused by a lack of vitamin C.
Sewell Newhouse
Manufacturer who began the steel-trap industry.
Shongsasha
A form of tobacco made from the bark of the red willow, sometimes mixed with Indian tobacco plant leaves.
Skin Trade
The fur trade.
Slush Lamp
See "Bitch".
Snag
A dead tree in a river. Capable of sinking a canoe.
Snow Eater
A chinook wind.
Sourdough
Fermented dough used for making bread, biscuits flapjacks, etc.
Spruce gum
Resin that forms on the spruce tree when the bark is scarred - used to make pego.
Spuds
Potatoes.
Square
A term of respect. Any man of courage, honesty, self- reliance, and devotion to what he believed was "square ". Sometimes referred to as a square-shooter.
Squaw Camp
A camp for women and children while the men were away hunting or at war.
Squaw Man
A White man married to an Indian woman.
Squaw Wind
An unexpected warm wind in the middle of a very cold spell. Like a chinook, but in the dead of winter.
Squaw Wood
Small dry sticks used for starting a fire or tending a very small. hard-to-see fire for cooking.
Stroud
A large coarse blanket intended for trade with the Indians. In the 1600’s, British stroud was considered superior and less costly than the blankets available from the French traders.
Sweat lodge
Aboriginal facility used for taking a steam bath - causes one to perspire profusely.

Tauraux
Sacks, usually of bison rawhide, filled with pemmican, pressed into 40kg bundles and sealed with grease.
Tepee
Tent used by Aboriginal peoples (especially of the plains) - constructed with a series of wooden poles arranged in a cone shape and covered with hides.
Thrums
The fringe on buckskin or leather clothing.
Thwart
Crossbar in a canoe.
Tinder Fungus
See 'chaga'.
Toboggan or Traineau
Algonquin term for a sled, with or without runners, made from thin wooden planks joined together and often curved upward at the front.
Tow
Unspun flax used for cleaning firearms. Also used as tinder.
Tomahawk
A small hatchet used by the Indians and mountain men for fighting and woodcraft.
Tomahawk Talks
Councils of war. Treaty councils. The tomahawk was an important symbol in both war and peace.
Trading post
Warehouse or store, sometimes fortified, established near Aboriginal populations - the place where traders exchanged European goods for furs.
Trapper Butter
Marrow from the leg bones of large animals.
Trappings
Accouterments or possibles.
Travee
A travois, a form of sled made by fastening two long poles together over the back of A horse or dog, then building a platform near where they drag to support a pack or cargo of some sort.
Traverse
Voyageur term for a wide crossing over water - too far from the safety of shore to be called comfortable - made to save time but posed a danger to life and cargo. High winds and high waves were the potential enemy on a traverse.
Tump-line
Strip of leather or other material that voyageurs slung around their head and used to tie and carry heavy loads during portages and as a harness when lining.

Up To Beaver
An expression meaning a very cunning persons one who can hold his own in any situation.

Vermilion
Brilliant red pigment made from cinnabar used by Indians to color their skin. European vermilion replaced the ocre and other sources of paint pigments used by Natives in pre-contact times.
Voyageurs
Men hired on contract by a fur trading company to transport goods by canoe between trading posts and warehouses. The voyageur followed the Coureur des bois era and came into being in and around 1763. Of the hundreds of voyageurs employed by the North West Company, most were French Canadian from Lower Canada. They were paid based on skill. The bowman (avant, devant, ducent) and the steersman (gouvernail) are the highest paid voyageurs, followed by the middle men (milieux).

Wampum
An Indian term for belts of small beads or shells that were used as money. Mountain men used the term to mean all money.
Wattape
Cord made from spruce roots, used for sewing birch bark and securing wood work on the voyageur's canoes.
Waugh
An exclamation of surprise, greeting, admiration, etc. Sounded like a grunt.
White Indian
A White man who went native and joined a tribe of Indians. Many captured White children became White Indians.
Wickiup
The lodge of some southwestern Indian tribes.
Wigwam
The dome-shaped lodge of some eastern Indian tribes.
Willow Killer
The first real cold spell of Fall. When the leaves fell off the willows due to the cold, it is a sure sign that winter had arrived.
Wild rice
Annual  aquatic plant with a long black seed, native to North America - an important part of the diet of Aboriginal peoples living around the Great Lakes.
Wintering partner
Shareholder in the NWC who resided in the interior and managed trade for one of the company's trading districts.
Wish-a-cappuca
Indian term for an fusion made from the inner side of the bark of the willow - used for relief of fever and minor aches.
Wolfer
A man who made his living hunting wolves for bounty. The wolfer was only considered a degree or two better than the hide hunter. Neither were ever considered a part of the skin (fur) trade.  

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